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== 9.1#h(0.6em)Geometric Form


    
      
=== Introduction


      One way to specify a location is to give a direction and a distance from a fixed landmark.  For example, we might say that the airport is located 8 miles northeast of the town hall, or that a ship has been sighted 20 miles from the lighthouse in the direction 10° west of north. It's not enough to give just the distance to the object or just the direction; we need both to describe the object's location.


      In mathematics, a quantity defined by both a magnitude (such as a distance) and a direction is called a #strong[vector].  A vector used to designate location relative to a fixed landmark, as in the examples above, is called a #strong[position vector].  Vectors are also used to analyze motion and velocity in two or three dimensions, to study forces such as gravity and electric fields, and to design computer graphics and animation.


      We often illustrate a vector by an arrow.  The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector, and the direction of the vector is indicated by the head of the arrow.


      #examplebox("Example 1")[][
Draw an arrow to represent each vector.


          + The campsite is 3 miles away, in a direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "30 degrees")[$30^(∘)$] north of east.
+ The wind is blowing due west at 50 kilometers per hour.


        
        #solutionbox[
+ We draw an arrow making an angle of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "30 degrees")[$30^(∘)$] from east. The length of the arrow is 3 units, representing 3 miles.  See figure (a) below.#figure(figph[position vector], alt: "position vector", caption: none)

#figure(figph[velocity vector], alt: "velocity vector", caption: none)
+ We draw an arrow pointing due west, that is, making an angle of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "180 degrees")[$180^(∘)$] from east. The length of the arrow represents the speed of the wind, 50 kilometers per hour. See figure (b) above.
]
]


      
        Draw an arrow to represent the velocity of an airplane travelling southeast at a speed of 300 miles per hour.


        
          #figure(figph[velocity vector], alt: "velocity vector", caption: none)


        
      
    
    
      
=== Notation for Vectors


      In print, we use boldface characters such as #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] to represent vectors. When writing by hand, we use an arrow above a variable to indicate that it is a vector, like this: #math.equation(block: false, alt: "vector v")[$" " arrow(v)$].


      It is important to distinguish vectors from quantities that have magnitude only, such as length or temperature. These quantities are called #strong[scalars]. They are the constants and variables you are used to dealing with, which are usually denoted by italic letters such as #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$] or #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k")[$k$].


      The length of a vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] is called its #strong[magnitude], and is denoted by #math.equation(block: false, alt: "∥ v ∥")[$∥ bold(v) ∥$].


      #notebox("Caution", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[
Note that the magnitude of a vector is a scalar quantity. Thus, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] denotes a vector, but #math.equation(block: false, alt: "∥ v ∥")[$∥ bold(v) ∥$] denotes a scalar.
]


      Two vectors may have the same length, but point in different directions.  The figure at right shows two vectors, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$], that have the same magnitude but different directions.  For this example, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "∥ u ∥ equals ∥ v ∥")[$∥ bold(u) ∥ = ∥ bold(v) ∥$], but #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u not equal to v")[$bold(u) ≠ bold(v)$].  Two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same length and the same direction, but they can start at different locations.  The fact that we can move vectors from one location to another is a useful property.


      #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


      #examplebox("Example 2")[][
Which of the vectors shown at right are equal?


          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


        
        #solutionbox[
Only vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "c")[$bold(c)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "g")[$bold(g)$] are equal.  Vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "b")[$bold(b)$], #math.equation(block: false, alt: "c")[$bold(c)$], and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "f")[$bold(f)$] are all the same length but have different directions. Vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a")[$bold(a)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "d")[$bold(d)$] also have equal lengths but different directions. Vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "d")[$bold(d)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "e")[$bold(e)$] have the same direction but different lengths.
]
]


      
        Sketch a vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$] that is equal to the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] shown at right, but that starts at the point #math.equation(block: false, alt: "open parenthesis minus 4 , 2 close parenthesis")[$( − 4 , 2 )$].


        #figure(figph[vector], alt: "vector", caption: none)


        
          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


        
      
    
    
      
=== Scalar Multiplication of Vectors


      We can multiply a vector by a scalar. The figure below shows the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$] and the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v equals 3 w")[$bold(v) = 3 bold(w)$]. Multiplying by a positive scalar changes the length of a vector but not its direction.


      #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


      Thus, the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] is 3 times as long as the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$]. If we multiply a vector by a negative scalar, we alter its length and reverse its direction; that is, we change the direction by #math.equation(block: false, alt: "180 degrees")[$180^(∘)$]. For example, the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u equals minus the fraction 1 over 2 w")[$bold(u) = − frac(1, 2) bold(w)$]. It is half the length of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$], and points in the opposite direction.


      In general, if #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k")[$k$] is a real number, then #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k v")[$k bold(v)$] represents the vector with magnitude #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k")[$k$] times the magnitude of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$]. It points in the same direction as #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] when #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k greater than 0")[$k > 0$] and in the opposite direction from #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] when #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k less than 0")[$k < 0$]. Real numbers are called scalars because they “scale” vectors in this way, and multiplying a scalar times a vector is called #strong[scalar multiplication].


      #examplebox("Example 3")[][
The figure at right shows the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] and two scalar multiples of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$].


          The vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "the fraction 2 over 3 v")[$frac(2, 3) bold(v)$] points in the same direction as #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$], but is only two-thirds as long as the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$]. The vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "minus the square root of 3 v")[$" " − sqrt(3) bold(v) " "$] points in the direction opposite to #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] and is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "the square root of 3")[$sqrt(3)$] or approximately #math.equation(block: false, alt: "1.7")[$1.7$] times as long as #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$].


          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


          Note that because #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] has a slope of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "the fraction minus 2 over 5")[$display(frac(− 2, 5))$], so does any nonzero multiple of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$].
]


      
        For the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$] shown at right, draw the vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "minus 0.6 w")[$− 0.6 bold(w)$] and  #math.equation(block: false, alt: "the square root of 2 w")[$sqrt(2) bold(w)$].


        #figure(figph[vector], alt: "vector", caption: none)


        
          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


        
      
    
    
      
=== Addition of Vectors


      A #strong[displacement vector] represents the change in position from one point to another.


      For example, suppose you leave home and travel 6 miles east and then 8 miles north. These two displacements are represented by the vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] shown at right.  When we follow one displacement vector by a second one, the net displacement is a new vector, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$], starting at the base of the first vector and ending at the head of the second vector.


      #figure(figph[vector sum], alt: "vector sum", caption: none)


      In this example, notice that #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$] forms the hypotenuse of a right triangle, so we can calculate its magnitude and direction.


      #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ w ∥ squared, equals ∥ u ∥ squared plus ∥ v ∥ squared equals 6 squared plus 8 squared equals 100; ∥ w ∥, equals 10; tan ⁡ open parenthesis θ close parenthesis, equals the fraction 8 over 6 equals the fraction 4 over 3; θ, equals tan to the power minus 1 ⁡ open parenthesis the fraction 4 over 3 close parenthesis equals 53.1 degrees")[$∥ bold(w) ∥^(2) & = ∥ bold(u) ∥^(2) + ∥ bold(v) ∥^(2) = 6^(2) + 8^(2) = 100 \ ∥ bold(w) ∥ & = 10 \ tan ( θ ) & = display(frac(8, 6)) = display(frac(4, 3)) \ θ & = tan^(− 1) ( display(frac(4, 3)) ) = 53.1^(∘)$]
      The net displacement gives your current position relative to home: 10 miles in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "53.1 degrees")[$53.1^(∘)$] north of east. When we follow one vector by a second vector as described above, we are adding the two vectors. The sum is called the #strong[resultant vector].


      #examplebox("Example 4")[][
For each pair of vectors, draw the resultant vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w equals u plus v")[$bold(w) = bold(u) + bold(v)$].


          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


        
        #solutionbox[
We draw a copy of the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] so that its base (or starting point) is placed on the head (or ending point) of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$], and then we draw vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$] from the base of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] to the head of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$].


          #figure(figph[vectors and sums], alt: "vectors and sums", caption: none)
]
]


      
        Draw the resultant vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w equals u plus v")[$bold(w) = bold(u) + bold(v)$].


        #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


        
          #figure(figph[vectors and sum], alt: "vectors and sum", caption: none)


        
      
      When the resultant vector forms the third side of a triangle, we can use the laws of sines and cosines to calculate its length and direction.


      #examplebox("Example 5")[][
You are camping in a state park. In the morning, you start off from your campground at point #math.equation(block: false, alt: "C")[$C$] and hike 4 miles southwest to point #math.equation(block: false, alt: "B")[$B$]. After taking a break, you continue hiking, and this time you cover 3 miles in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "30 degrees")[$30^(∘)$] east of north, and arrive at point #math.equation(block: false, alt: "A")[$A$], as shown at right. What is your position relative to the campground?


          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


        
        #solutionbox[
Consider the triangle #math.equation(block: false, alt: "A B C")[$A B C$], where the resultant vector, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$], is side #math.equation(block: false, alt: "A C")[$A C$]. Because the direction "southwest" forms a #math.equation(block: false, alt: "45 degrees")[$45^(∘)$] angle with north, angle #math.equation(block: false, alt: "B")[$B$] in the triangle is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "15 degrees")[$15^(∘)$]. We can use the law of cosines to compute the length of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$].


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ w ∥ squared, equals 4 squared plus 3 squared minus 2 open parenthesis 4 close parenthesis open parenthesis 3 close parenthesis cos ⁡ 15 degrees; equals 16 plus 9 minus 24 open parenthesis 0.9659 close parenthesis equals 1.81778")[$∥ bold(w) ∥^(2) & = 4^(2) + 3^(2) − 2 ( 4 ) ( 3 ) cos 15^(∘) \  & = 16 + 9 − 24 ( 0.9659 ) = 1.81778$]
          Thus, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "∥ w ∥ equals the square root of 1.81778 equals 1.348")[$∥ bold(w) ∥ = sqrt(1.81778) = 1.348$], so you are 1.348 miles from the campground. To find the direction back to the campground, we use the law of sines to calculate the angle at #math.equation(block: false, alt: "C")[$C$].


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "the fraction sin ⁡ open parenthesis C close parenthesis over 3, equals the fraction sin ⁡ 15 degrees over 1.348; sin ⁡ open parenthesis C close parenthesis, equals the fraction 3 sin ⁡ 15 degrees over 1.348 equals 0.5759; C, equals sin to the power minus 1 ⁡ open parenthesis 0.5759 close parenthesis equals 35.2 degrees")[$display(frac(sin ( C ), 3)) & = display(frac(sin 15^(∘), 1.348)) \ sin ( C ) & = display(frac(3 sin 15^(∘), 1.348)) = 0.5759 \ C & = sin^(− 1) ( 0.5759 ) = 35.2^(∘)$]
          Because side #math.equation(block: false, alt: "B C")[$B C$] is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "45 degrees")[$45^(∘)$] from due west, we subtract angle #math.equation(block: false, alt: "C")[$C$] to find that at point #math.equation(block: false, alt: "A")[$A$] you are
1.348 miles from camp in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "9.8 degrees")[$9.8^(∘)$] south of west.
]
]


      
        Delbert has gone sailing with friends. After leaving the marina, they sail for 5 miles on a bearing of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "160 degrees")[$160^(∘)$] and stop at Gull Island for lunch. (Recall that bearings are measured clockwise from north.) After lunch, they have sailed for 3 miles on a bearing of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "25 degrees")[$25^(∘)$] when they get a phone call to return home. What bearing is the most direct route back to the marina, and how far is it?


        
          #math.equation(block: false, alt: "56.4 degrees")[$56.4^(∘)$] W of N, 3.58 mi


        
      
      It doesn't matter which order we choose to add two vectors. As with the ordinary addition of scalars, the addition of vectors is commutative, so that #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u plus v equals v plus u")[$bold(u) + bold(v) = bold(v) + bold(u)$]. To see this, first draw #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] starting at the same point.


      #figure(figph[vector parallelogram rule], alt: "vector parallelogram rule", caption: none)


      - To represent #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u plus v")[$bold(u) + bold(v)$], we place the base of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] at the head of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$], and draw the resultant vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u plus v")[$bold(u) + bold(v)$] as shown at left.
- To represent #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v plus u")[$bold(v) + bold(u)$], we place the base of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] at the head of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$], and the resultant vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v plus u")[$bold(v) + bold(u)$] is the same as the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u plus v")[$bold(u) + bold(v)$].


      Because the vector sum forms the diagonal of a parallelogram in this picture, the rule for adding vectors is sometimes called the #strong[parallelogram rule].


      We summarize the operations on vectors as follows.


      #notebox("Note", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[
#emph[Operations on Vectors]


        + We can multiply a vector, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$], by a scalar, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k")[$k$].+ If #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k greater than 0")[$k > 0$], the magnitude of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k v")[$k bold(v)$] is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k")[$k$] times the magnitude of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$]. The direction of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k v")[$k bold(v)$] is the same as the direction of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$].
+ If #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k less than 0")[$k < 0$], the direction of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k v")[$k bold(v)$] is opposite the direction of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$].
+ We can add two vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] and#math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$] with the parallelogram rule.
]


      #notebox("Caution", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[
Unless #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] are parallel vectors, it is not true that the length of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u plus v")[$bold(u) + bold(v)$] is just the sum of the lengths of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$]. Vector addition is a geometric operation; the length of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u plus v")[$bold(u) + bold(v)$] depends on the lengths of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] and on the angle between them.  Be careful to distinguish between regular addition of scalars, such as #math.equation(block: false, alt: "∥ u ∥ plus ∥ v ∥")[$∥ bold(u) ∥ + ∥ bold(v) ∥$], and vector addition, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u plus v")[$bold(u) + bold(v)$], which requires the parallelogram rule.
]


    
    
      
=== Velocity


      Physicists and mathematicians use the word #strong[velocity] to mean not simply speed but the combination of speed and direction of motion. The interesting thing about velocities is that they add like vectors;  if an object's motion consists of two simultaneous components, the resulting displacement is the same as if the motions had occurred one after the other.


      For example, imagine a beetle walking across a moving conveyor belt, as shown in the figure below. The beetle walks across the belt at 2 inches per second. But the conveyor belt is moving at a speed of 4 inches per second from left to right in the figure, so the actual path of the beetle relative to the ground is diagonally across the belt.


      After 1 second, the beetle has traveled from his starting point at #math.equation(block: false, alt: "P")[$P$] on one side of he belt to point #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Q")[$Q$] on the other side, a distance of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "the square root of 2 squared plus 4 squared equals the square root of 20")[$sqrt(2^(2) + 4^(2)) = sqrt(20)$], or about 4.47 inches. So his actual velocity relative to the ground is 4.47 inches per second, at an angle of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "θ equals tan to the power minus 1 ⁡ open parenthesis the fraction 2 over 4 close parenthesis equals 26.6 degrees")[$θ = tan^(− 1) ( frac(2, 4) ) = 26.6^(∘)$] from the direction of the conveyor belt.


      #figure(figph[beetle on conveyor belt], alt: "beetle on conveyor belt", caption: none)


      Notice that if the two motions were performed in succession instead of simultaneously, the resulting displacement would be the same. In other words, if the beetle had walked across the belt for 1 second before it started moving, and then ridden the belt for 1 second without walking, he would still end up at point #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Q")[$Q$].


      Thus, velocity is a vector quantity, and we can calculate the result of two simultaneous motions by using the parallelogram rule. We treat the two motions as if they had occurred one after the other, by starting one vector at the endpoint of the other. (Remember we can move a vector from one location to another, as long as we preserve its length and direction.)


      #examplebox("Example 6")[][
A ship travels at 15 miles per hour relative to the water on a bearing of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "280 degrees")[$280^(∘)$].  The water current flows at 6 miles per hour on a bearing of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "160 degrees")[$160^(∘)$].  What is the actual speed and direction of the ship?


        
        #solutionbox[
We represent the ship's velocity by a vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] and the velocity of the water current by vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$], as shown in figure (a). The actual motion of the ship is the sum of these two vectors, and we can calculate the sum just as if the two motions had occurred separately, one after the other.


          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


          So we will add #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$] to #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] by placing the base of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$] at the head of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$], as shown in figure (b). The resultant vector, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$], represents the actual motion of the ship.


          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


          We first calculate the angle #math.equation(block: false, alt: "θ")[$θ$] between the two vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$]. From Figure (a), you can see that #math.equation(block: false, alt: "α equals 10 degrees")[$α = 10^(∘)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "β equals 20 degrees")[$β = 20^(∘)$], so #math.equation(block: false, alt: "θ equals 60 degrees")[$θ = 60^(∘)$]. Now we can use the law of cosines to find #math.equation(block: false, alt: "∥ u ∥")[$∥ bold(u) ∥$].


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ u ∥ squared, equals ∥ v ∥ squared plus ∥ w ∥ squared minus 2 ∥ v ∥ ∥ w ∥ cos ⁡ θ; equals 15 squared plus 6 squared minus 2 open parenthesis 15 close parenthesis open parenthesis 6 close parenthesis cos ⁡ open parenthesis 60 degrees close parenthesis; equals 171")[$∥ bold(u) ∥^(2) & = ∥ bold(v) ∥^(2) + ∥ bold(w) ∥^(2) − 2 ∥ bold(v) ∥ ∥ bold(w) ∥ cos θ \  & = 15^(2) + 6^(2) − 2 ( 15 ) ( 6 ) cos ( 60^(∘) ) \  & = 171$]
          The ship's speed is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "the square root of 171 approximately equals 13.1")[$sqrt(171) ≈ 13.1$] mph. Next we use the law of sines to calculate the angle #math.equation(block: false, alt: "ϕ")[$ϕ$].


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "the fraction sin ⁡ open parenthesis ϕ close parenthesis over 6, equals the fraction sin ⁡ open parenthesis θ close parenthesis over ∥ u ∥; sin ⁡ open parenthesis ϕ close parenthesis, equals 6 times the fraction sin ⁡ open parenthesis 60 degrees close parenthesis over the square root of 171 equals 0.3974; ϕ, equals sin to the power minus 1 ⁡ open parenthesis 0.3974 close parenthesis equals 23.4 degrees")[$display(frac(sin ( ϕ ), 6)) & = display(frac(sin ( θ ), ∥ bold(u) ∥)) \ sin ( ϕ ) & = 6 ⋅ display(frac(sin ( 60^(∘) ), sqrt(171))) = 0.3974 \ ϕ & = sin^(− 1) ( 0.3974 ) = 23.4^(∘)$]
          The direction of the ship is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "ϕ minus 10 degrees equals 13.4 degrees")[$ϕ − 10^(∘) = 13.4^(∘)$] south of due west, or on bearing #math.equation(block: false, alt: "256.6 degrees")[$256.6^(∘)$].
]
]


      
        A plane heads due north at an airspeed of 120 miles per hour. There is a 45 mph wind traveling #math.equation(block: false, alt: "5 degrees")[$5^(∘)$] south of due east.  What are the plane’s actual speed and direction relative to the ground?


        
          124.4 mph, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "21.1 degrees")[$21.1^(∘) " "$] east of north


        
      
      In some situations, instead of calculating a vector sum, we would like to find a vector to produce a particular sum.  That is, we know vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$], and we want to find a vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] so that #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u plus v equals w")[$bold(u) + bold(v) = bold(w)$].


      #examplebox("Example 7")[][
Barbara wants to travel west to an island at a speed of 15 miles per hour. However, she must compensate for a current running #math.equation(block: false, alt: "45 degrees")[$45^(∘)$] east of north at a speed of 3 miles per hour. In what direction and at what speed should Barbara head her boat?


        
        #solutionbox[
We draw a triangle using vectors to represent the desired velocity of Barbara's boat, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$], and the velocity of the current, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$], as shown below.


          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


          We would like to find a vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] that represents the speed and heading Barbara should take in order to compensate for the current.


          We first use the law of cosines to calculate the length or magnitude of the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$]. The angle at #math.equation(block: false, alt: "C")[$C$] is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "135 degrees")[$135^(∘)$]. (Do you see why?). Thus,


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ v ∥ squared, equals 3 squared plus 15 squared minus 2 open parenthesis 3 close parenthesis open parenthesis 15 close parenthesis cos ⁡ open parenthesis 135 degrees close parenthesis; equals 297.64; ∥ v ∥, equals 17.25")[$∥ bold(v) ∥^(2) & = 3^(2) + 15^(2) − 2 ( 3 ) ( 15 ) cos ( 135^(∘) ) \  & = 297.64 \ ∥ bold(v) ∥ & = 17.25$]
          So Barbara should travel at about 17.25 miles per hour.


          To find her heading, we use the law of sines to calculate the angle #math.equation(block: false, alt: "θ")[$θ$].


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "the fraction sin ⁡ open parenthesis θ close parenthesis over 3, equals the fraction sin ⁡ open parenthesis 45 degrees close parenthesis over 15; sin ⁡ open parenthesis θ close parenthesis, equals the fraction 3 open parenthesis 0 , 7071 close parenthesis over 15 equals 0.1414; θ, equals sin to the power minus 1 ⁡ open parenthesis 0.1414 close parenthesis equals 8.1 degrees")[$display(frac(sin ( θ ), 3)) & = display(frac(sin ( 45^(∘) ), 15)) \ sin ( θ ) & = display(frac(3 ( 0 "," 7071 ), 15)) = 0.1414 \ θ & = sin^(− 1) ( 0.1414 ) = 8.1^(∘)$]
          Barbara should head her boat about #math.equation(block: false, alt: "8.1 degrees")[$8.1^(∘)$] south of west, or at a bearing of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "261.9 degrees")[$261.9^(∘)$].
]
]


      
        Ahab would like to sail at 20 kilometers per hour due west towards a whale reported at that position. However, a steady ocean current is moving #math.equation(block: false, alt: "52 degrees")[$52^(∘)$] east of north at 8 kilometers per hour. At what speed and heading should Ahab sail?


        
          26.76 kph #math.equation(block: false, alt: "10.6 degrees")[$10.6^(∘)$] south of west


        
      
    
    
      
=== Components of a Vector


      We have seen that we can add two vectors to get a third or resultant vector.  We can also break down a vector into two or more component vectors. For many applications, it is useful to break a vector into horizontal and vertical components.


      For example, the beetle on the conveyor belt moved at 4.47 inches per second in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "26.6 degrees")[$26.6^(∘)$].  If we set up coordinate axes as shown below, the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] representing his velocity is the sum of the beetle's motion in the #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]-direction, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub x")[$bold(v)_(bold(x))$], at 4 inches per second, and his motion in the #math.equation(block: false, alt: "y")[$y$]-direction, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub y")[$bold(v)_(bold(y))$], at 2 inches per second.


      #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


      We can break down any vector into its #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]- and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "y")[$y$]-components, and the sum of those components is equal to the original vector. In other words, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v equals v sub x plus v sub y")[$bold(v) = bold(v)_(bold(x)) + bold(v)_(bold(y))$].


      The horizontal and vertical vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub x")[$bold(v)_(bold(x))$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub y")[$bold(v)_(bold(y))$] are called the #strong[vector components] of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$]. If we designate the direction of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] by an angle #math.equation(block: false, alt: "θ")[$θ$] measured counter-clockwise from the positive #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]-axis, then the scalar quantities given by


      #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v sub x equals ∥ v ∥ cos ⁡ open parenthesis θ close parenthesis")[$v_(x) = ∥ bold(v) ∥ cos ( θ )$]
      #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v sub y equals ∥ v ∥ sin ⁡ open parenthesis θ close parenthesis")[$v_(y) = ∥ bold(v) ∥ sin ( θ )$]
      are called simply the #strong[components] of the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$].


      Note that the components #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub x")[$v_(x)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub y")[$v_(y)$] of a vector are scalars; they are not vectors themselves. They can be either positive or negative (or zero).


      #examplebox("Example 8")[][
A plane flies at 300 miles per hour in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "30 degrees")[$30^(∘)$] north of west. Find the #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]- and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "y")[$y$]-components of its velocity.


        
        #solutionbox[
We draw a triangle showing the plane's velocity, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$], as the sum of its vector components #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub x")[$bold(v)_(bold(x))$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub y")[$bold(v)_(bold(y))$], as shown below.


          #figure(figph[vectorrs], alt: "vectorrs", caption: none)


          In this coordinate system, the angle #math.equation(block: false, alt: "θ")[$θ$] is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "150 degrees")[$150^(∘)$].  Because the components are the legs of a right triangle, we have


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v sub x, equals 300 cos ⁡ open parenthesis 150 degrees close parenthesis equals minus 259.81; v sub y, equals 300 sin ⁡ open parenthesis 150 degrees close parenthesis equals 150")[$v_(x) & = 300 cos ( 150^(∘) ) = − 259.81 \ v_(y) & = 300 sin ( 150^(∘) ) = 150$]
]
]


      
        The wind is blowing 50 kilometers per hour in a direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "10 degrees")[$10^(∘)$] south of due west.  Find the #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]- and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "y")[$y$]-components of its velocity.


        
          #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub x approximately equals minus 49.2")[$v_(x) ≈ − 49.2$] kph, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub y approximately equals minus 8.7")[$v_(y) ≈ − 8.7$] kph


        
      
    
    
      
=== Using Components


      We can describe a vector completely using either magnitude and direction or components. Many calculations with vectors are simpler when we use components. For example, to add two vectors using components, we don't need the laws of sines and cosines. We resolve each vector into its horizontal and vertical components, add the corresponding components, then compute the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.


      To calculate magnitude and direction from the components, we need only right triangle trigonometry.


      #notebox("Note", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[
#emph[Vector Components]


        To calculate the magnitude and direction of a vector from its components,


        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ v ∥ equals the square root of open parenthesis v sub x close parenthesis squared plus open parenthesis v sub y close parenthesis squared and tan ⁡ open parenthesis θ close parenthesis equals the fraction v sub y over v sub x")[$∥ bold(v) ∥ = sqrt(( v_(x) )^(2) + ( v_(y) )^(2)) " " " " " " " " "and" " " " " " " " " tan ( θ ) = display(frac(v_(y), v_(x)))$]
]


      #examplebox("Example 9")[][
After flying for some time, the airplane in the previous example encounters a steady wind blowing at 40 miles per hour from #math.equation(block: false, alt: "10 degrees")[$10^(∘)$] south of west. What are the actual speed and heading of the airplane relative to the ground?


        
        #solutionbox[
We would like to add the vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$], representing the plane's intended velocity, and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$], representing the velocity of the wind. The actual velocity of the airplane is given by the resultant vector, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w equals v plus u")[$bold(w) = bold(v) + bold(u)$] as shown in the figure.


          #figure(figph[velocity vectors], alt: "velocity vectors", caption: none)


          In the previous Example we found the components of the plane's velocity.


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v sub x, equals 300 cos ⁡ open parenthesis 150 degrees close parenthesis equals minus 259.81; v sub y, equals 300 sin ⁡ open parenthesis 150 degrees close parenthesis equals 150")[$v_(x) & = 300 cos ( 150^(∘) ) = − 259.81 \ v_(y) & = 300 sin ( 150^(∘) ) = 150$]
          We next resolve #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] into its components.


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "u sub x, equals 40 cos ⁡ open parenthesis 10 degrees close parenthesis equals 39.30; u sub y, equals 40 sin ⁡ open parenthesis 10 degrees close parenthesis equals 6.95")[$u_(x) & = 40 cos ( 10^(∘) ) = 39.30 \ u_(y) & = 40 sin ( 10^(∘) ) = 6.95$]
          To find the components of the resultant, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$], we add the components of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$]. That is,


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "w sub x, equals u sub x plus v sub x equals 39.30 minus 259.81 equals minus 220.51; w sub y, equals u sub y plus v sub y equals 6.95 plus 150 equals 156.95")[$w_(x) & = u_(x) + v_(x) = 39.30 − 259.81 = − 220.51 \ w_(y) & = u_(y) + v_(y) = 6.95 + 150 = 156.95$]
          Finally, we compute the magnitude and direction of the resultant.


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ w ∥ squared, equals open parenthesis minus 220.51 close parenthesis squared plus open parenthesis 156.95 close parenthesis squared equals 73 , 257.96; ∥ w ∥, equals 270.66")[$∥ bold(w) ∥^(2) & = ( − 220.51 )^(2) + ( 156.95 )^(2) = 73 , 257.96 \ ∥ bold(w) ∥ & = 270.66$]
          So, the ground speed of the airplane is 272.41 miles per hour.


          To find its heading, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "θ")[$θ$], we compute


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "tan ⁡ open parenthesis θ close parenthesis equals the fraction 156.95 over minus 220.51 equals minus 0.7118")[$tan ( θ ) = display(frac(156.95, − 220.51)) = − 0.7118$]
          Because #math.equation(block: false, alt: "θ")[$θ$] is a second-quadrant angle, we have


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "θ equals tan to the power minus 1 ⁡ open parenthesis minus 0.7118 close parenthesis plus 180 degrees equals 145 degrees")[$θ = tan^(− 1) ( − 0.7118 ) + 180^(∘) = 145^(∘)$]
          The plane flies in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "145 degrees")[$145^(∘)$], or #math.equation(block: false, alt: "35 degrees")[$35^(∘)$] north of west.
]
]


      #notebox("Caution", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[
In the previous example, the airplane's heading is not #math.equation(block: false, alt: "tan to the power minus 1 ⁡ open parenthesis minus 0.7254 close parenthesis equals minus 36 degrees")[$tan^(− 1) ( − 0.7254 ) = − 36^(∘)$]. Remember that there are always two angles with a given tangent. We can refer to a sketch of the vector or to the signs of its components to decide which of those two angles is appropriate.
]


      
        A plane is flying in a wind blowing 50 kilometers per hour in a direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "10 degrees")[$10^(∘)$] south of due west. The plane has an airspeed of 200 kph and bearing #math.equation(block: false, alt: "142 degrees")[$142^(∘)$]  What is the ground speed and actual direction of the plane?


        
          groundspeed 182 kph, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "66 degrees")[$66^(∘)$] S of E


        
      
      Review the following skills you will need for this section.


      #notebox("Algebra Refresher", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[
+ State two versions of the Law of Sines.
+ State two versions of the Law of Cosines.Find the unknown part of the triangle. Round to two decimal places.
+ #math.equation(block: false, alt: "A equals 15 degrees , B equals 125 degrees , b equals 12")[$A = 15^(∘) , " " B = 125^(∘) , " " b = 12 " "$] cm, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a equals")[$a =$]?
+ #math.equation(block: false, alt: "C equals 87 degrees , b equals 11 inches , c equals 13 inches , B equals")[$C = 87^(∘) , " " b = 11 " " "inches" , " " c = 13 " " "inches" , " " B =$]?
+ #math.equation(block: false, alt: "A equals 37 degrees , b equals 6 , c equals 14 , a equals")[$A = 37^(∘) , " " b = 6 , " " c = 14 " " , a =$]?
+ #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a equals 9 , b equals 4 , c equals 7 , B equals")[$a = 9 , " " b = 4 , " " c = 7 , " " B =$]?


        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "bar")[$underline(#h(2em) #h(2em) #h(2em) #h(2em))$]


        Skills Refresher Answers


        + #math.equation(block: false, alt: "the fraction sin ⁡ A over a equals the fraction sin ⁡ B over b")[$display(frac(sin A, a)) = display(frac(sin B, b))$], #math.equation(block: false, alt: "the fraction b over sin ⁡ B equals the fraction c over sin ⁡ C")[$display(frac(b, sin B)) = display(frac(c, sin C))$]
+ #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a squared equals b squared plus c squared minus 2 b c cos ⁡ A")[$a^(2) = b^(2) + c^(2) − 2 b c cos A$], #math.equation(block: false, alt: "b squared equals a squared plus c squared minus 2 a c cos ⁡ B")[$b^(2) = a^(2) + c^(2) − 2 a c cos B$]
+ 3.79
+ #math.equation(block: false, alt: "57.67 degrees")[$57.67^(∘)$]
+ 9.89
+ #math.equation(block: false, alt: "25.21 degrees")[$25.21^(∘)$]
]


    
    
      
=== Section 9.1 Summary


      
        
==== Vocabulary


        - Vector
- Scalar
- Magnitude
- Scalar multiplication
- Displacement vector
- Resultant vector
- Parallelogram rule
- Velocity
- Vector components
- Components


      
      
        
==== Concepts


        + A quantity defined by both a magnitude (such as a distance) and a direction is called a #strong[vector].
+ Two vectors are equal if they have the same length and direction; it does not matter where the vector starts.
+ The length of a vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] is called its #strong[magnitude], and is denoted by #math.equation(block: false, alt: "∥ v ∥")[$∥ bold(v) ∥$].
+ The sum of two vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] is a new vector, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$], starting at the tail of the first vector and ending at the head of the second vector. The sum is called the #strong[resultant vector].
+ Addition of vectors is commutative.  The rule for adding vectors is sometimes called the #strong[parallelogram rule].
+ #notebox("Note", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[
#emph[Operations on Vectors]

+ We can multiply a vector, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$], by a scalar, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k")[$k$].+ If #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k greater than 0")[$k > 0$], the magnitude of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k v")[$k bold(v)$] is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k")[$k$] times the magnitude of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$]. The 
            direction of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k v")[$k bold(v)$] is the same as the direction of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$].
+ If #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k less than 0")[$k < 0$], the direction of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "k v")[$k bold(v)$] is opposite the direction of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$].
+ We can add two vectors #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] and#math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$] with the parallelogram rule.
]
+ Any vector can be written as the sum of its horizontal and vertical vector components, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub x")[$bold(v)_(bold(x))$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub y")[$bold(v)_(bold(y))$].
+ The #strong[components] of a vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] whose direction is given by the angle #math.equation(block: false, alt: "θ")[$θ$] in standard position are the scalar quantities
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v sub x equals ∥ v ∥ cos ⁡ θ")[$v_(x) = ∥ bold(v) ∥ cos θ$]
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v sub y equals ∥ v ∥ sin ⁡ θ")[$v_(y) = ∥ bold(v) ∥ sin θ$]
+ The magnitude and direction of a vector with components  and  are given by
    #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ v ∥ equals the square root of open parenthesis v sub x close parenthesis squared plus open parenthesis v sub y close parenthesis squared and tan ⁡ θ equals the fraction v sub y over v sub x")[$∥ bold(v) ∥ = sqrt(( v_(x) )^(2) + ( v_(y) )^(2)) " " " " " " " " "and" " " " " " " " " tan θ = display(frac(v_(y), v_(x)))$]
+ To add two vectors using components, we can resolve each vector into its horizontal and vertical components, add the corresponding components, then compute the magnitude and direction of the resultant.


      
      
        
====  Study Questions


        + What is the difference between a scalar and a vector?
+ If  velocity is represented by a vector, what is its magnitude called?
+ Does #math.equation(block: false, alt: "∥ u plus v ∥ equals ∥ u ∥ plus ∥ v ∥")[$∥ bold(u) + bold(v) ∥ = ∥ bold(u) ∥ + ∥ bold(v) ∥$] ?  Does #math.equation(block: false, alt: "∥ k v ∥ equals vertical bar k vertical bar ∥ v ∥")[$∥ k bold(v) ∥ = | k | ∥ bold(v) ∥$] ?
+ What is the parallelogram rule?
+ What are the components of a vector?  Does #math.equation(block: false, alt: "∥ v ∥ equals vertical bar v sub x vertical bar plus vertical bar v sub y vertical bar")[$∥ bold(v) ∥ = | v_(x) | + | v_(y) |$] ?


      
      
        
==== Skills


        + Sketch a vector    \#1–6
+ Identify equal vectors    \#7–10
+ Sketch a scalar multiple of a vector    \#11–14
+ Sketch the sum of two vectors    \#15–22
+ Calculate a resultant vector    \#23–32, 45–48
+ Use vectors to solve problems    \#33–36
+ Find components of a vector    \#37–40
+ Find the magnitude and direction of a vector given in components    \#41–44
+ Subtract vectors    \#49–58


      
    
    
      
=== Homework 9-1


      For Problems 1–6, sketch a vector to represent the quantity.


      
        The waterfall is 3 km away, in a direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "15 degrees")[$15^(∘)$] south of west.


        
          #figure(figph[position vector], alt: "position vector", caption: none)


        
      
      
        The cave entrance is 450 meters away, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "45 degrees")[$45^(∘)$] north of east.


      
      
        The current is moving 6 feet per second in a direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "60 degrees")[$60^(∘)$] east of north.


        
          #figure(figph[velocity vector], alt: "velocity vector", caption: none)


        
      
      
        The bird is flying due south at 45 mile per hour.


      
      
        The projectile was launched at a speed of 40 meters per second, at an angle of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "30 degrees")[$30^(∘)$] above horizontal.


        
          #figure(figph[velocity vector], alt: "velocity vector", caption: none)


        
      
      
        The baseball was hit straight up at a speed of 60 miles per hour.


      
      For Problems 7–10, which vectors are equal?


      
        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
          #math.equation(block: false, alt: "A")[$bold(A)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "E")[$bold(E)$]


        
      
      
        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


      
      
        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
          #math.equation(block: false, alt: "H")[$bold(H)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "K")[$bold(K)$]


        
      
      
        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


      
      For Problems 11–14, sketch a vector equal to #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$], but starting at the given point.


      
        #figure(figph[vector on grid], alt: "vector on grid", caption: none)


        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "open parenthesis 4 , minus 1 close parenthesis")[$( 4 , − 1 )$]


        
          #figure(figph[vecoor on grid], alt: "vecoor on grid", caption: none)


        
      
      
        #figure(figph[vector on grid], alt: "vector on grid", caption: none)


        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "open parenthesis minus 3 , 1 close parenthesis")[$( − 3 , 1 )$]


      
      
        #figure(figph[vector on grid], alt: "vector on grid", caption: none)


        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "open parenthesis 0 , minus 2 close parenthesis")[$( 0 , − 2 )$]


        
          #figure(figph[vector on grid], alt: "vector on grid", caption: none)


        
      
      
        #figure(figph[vector on grid], alt: "vector on grid", caption: none)


        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "open parenthesis minus 3 , minus 1 close parenthesis")[$( − 3 , − 1 )$]


      
      For Problems 15–18, draw the scalar multiples of the given vectors.


      
        #figure(figph[triangle], alt: "triangle", caption: none)


        #math.equation(block: false, alt: "minus 2 v")[$− 2 bold(v)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "1.5 v")[$1.5 bold(v)$]


        
          #figure(figph[triangle], alt: "triangle", caption: none)


        
      
      
        #figure(figph[vector on grid], alt: "vector on grid", caption: none)


        #math.equation(block: false, alt: "the fraction minus 1 over 2 w")[$display(frac(− 1, 2)) bold(w)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "3 w")[$3 bold(w)$]


      
      
        #figure(figph[vector on grid], alt: "vector on grid", caption: none)


        #math.equation(block: false, alt: "minus 2.5 u")[$− 2.5 bold(u)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "the square root of 2 u")[$sqrt(2) bold(u)$]


        
          #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
      
      
        #figure(figph[vector on grid], alt: "vector on grid", caption: none)


        #math.equation(block: false, alt: "minus the square root of 6 t")[$− sqrt(6) bold(t)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "5.4 t")[$5.4 bold(t)$]


      
      For Problems 19–26,


      + draw the resultant vector,
+ calculate the length and direction of the resultant vector.


      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "A equals u plus v")[$bold(A) = bold(u) + bold(v)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
          #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ A ∥ equals the square root of 13 , θ equals minus 33.7 degrees")[$∥ bold(A) ∥ = sqrt(13) , " " θ = − 33.7^(∘)$]


        
      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "B equals z plus u")[$bold(B) = bold(z) + bold(u)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "C equals w plus u")[$bold(C) = bold(w) + bold(u)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
          #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ C ∥ equals 1 , θ equals 90 degrees")[$∥ bold(C) ∥ = 1 , " " θ = 90^(∘)$]


        
      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "D equals G plus z")[$bold(D) = bold(G) + bold(z)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "E equals z plus F")[$bold(E) = bold(z) + bold(F)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
          #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ E ∥ equals 5 , θ equals 90 degrees")[$∥ bold(E) ∥ = 5 , " " θ = 90^(∘)$]


        
      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "F equals w plus v")[$bold(F) = bold(w) + bold(v)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "G equals w plus w")[$bold(G) = bold(w) + bold(w)$]


        #figure(figph[vector on grid], alt: "vector on grid", caption: none)


        
          #figure(figph[vector on], alt: "vector on", caption: none)


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ G ∥ equals 4 , θ equals 180 degrees")[$∥ bold(G) ∥ = 4 , " " θ = 180^(∘)$]


        
      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "H equals G plus G")[$bold(H) = bold(G) + bold(G)$]


        #figure(figph[vector on grid], alt: "vector on grid", caption: none)


      
      For Problems 27–30, find the magnitude and direction of the vector.


      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v sub x equals 5 , v sub y equals minus 12")[$v_(x) = 5 , " " v_(y) = − 12$]


        
          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ v ∥ equals 13 , θ equals minus 67.38 degrees")[$∥ bold(v) ∥ = 13 , " " θ = − 67.38^(∘)$]


        
      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v sub x equals minus 8 , v sub y equals 15")[$v_(x) = − 8 , " " v_(y) = 15$]


      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v sub x equals minus 6 , v sub y equals minus 7")[$v_(x) = − 6 , " " v_(y) = − 7$]


        
          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ v ∥ equals the square root of 85 approximately equals 9.22 , θ equals 229.4 degrees")[$∥ bold(v) ∥ = sqrt(85) ≈ 9.22 , " " θ = 229.4^(∘)$]


        
      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v sub x equals 1 , v sub y equals minus 3")[$v_(x) = 1 , " " v_(y) = − 3$]


      
      For Problems 31–38, sketch the vectors, then calculate the resultant.


      
        Add the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] of length 45 pointing #math.equation(block: false, alt: "26 degrees")[$26^(∘)$] east of north to the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$] of length 32 pointing #math.equation(block: false, alt: "17 degrees")[$17^(∘)$] south of west.


        
          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ v plus w ∥ equals 32.9 , θ equals 109.3 degrees")[$∥ bold(v) + bold(w) ∥ = 32.9 , " " θ = 109.3^(∘)$]


        
      
      
        Add the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] of length 105 pointing #math.equation(block: false, alt: "41 degrees")[$41^(∘)$] west of south to the vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$] of length 77 pointing #math.equation(block: false, alt: "8 degrees")[$8^(∘)$] west of north.


      
      
        Let #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] have length 8 and point in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "80 degrees")[$80^(∘)$] counterclockwise from the positive #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]-axis. Let #math.equation(block: false, alt: "w")[$bold(w)$] have length 13 and point in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "200 degrees")[$200^(∘)$] counterclockwise from the positive #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]-axis. Find #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v plus w")[$bold(v) + bold(w)$].


        
          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "∥ v plus w ∥ equals 11.4 , θ equals 162.4 degrees")[$∥ bold(v) + bold(w) ∥ = 11.4 , " " θ = 162.4^(∘)$]


        
      
      
        Let #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a")[$bold(a)$] have length 43 and point in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "107 degrees")[$107^(∘)$] counterclockwise from the positive #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]-axis. Let #math.equation(block: false, alt: "b")[$bold(b)$] have length 19 and point in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "309 degrees")[$309^(∘)$] counterclockwise from the positive #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]-axis. Find #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a plus b")[$bold(a) + bold(b)$].


      
      
        Esther swam 3.6 miles heading #math.equation(block: false, alt: "20 degrees")[$20^(∘)$] east of north. However, the water current displaced her by 0.9 miles in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "37 degrees")[$37^(∘)$] east of north. How far is Esther from her starting point, and in what direction?


        
          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


          4.47 mi, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "23.4 degrees")[$23.4^(∘)$] east of north


        
      
      
        Rani paddles her canoe 4.5 miles in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "12 degrees")[$12^(∘)$] west of north. The water current pushes her 0.3 miles off course in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "5 degrees")[$5^(∘)$] east of north.  How far is Rani from her starting point, and in what direction?


      
      
        Brenda wants to fly to an airport that is 103 miles due west in 1 hour. The prevailing winds blow in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "112 degrees")[$112^(∘)$] east of north at 28 miles per hour, so Brenda will head her plane somewhat north of due west to compensate. What airspeed and direction should Brenda take?


        
          #figure(figph[vectors], alt: "vectors", caption: none)


          129.4 mph, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "85.4 degrees")[$85.4^(∘)$] west of north


        
      
      
        Ryan wants to cross a 300 meter wide river running due south at 80 meters per minute.  There are rocks upstream and rapids downstream, so he wants to paddle straight across from east to west. In what direction should he point his kayak, and how fast should his water speed be in order to cross the river in 2 minutes? (Hint: The current will move him 160 meters due south compared with where his speed and direction would take him if the current stopped.  Compute the distance he would have traveled, then divide by 2 minutes to get the speed.)


      
      For Problems 39–42,


      + find the horizontal and vertical components of the vectors,
+ use the components to calculate the resultant vector.


      
        A ship maintains a heading of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "30 degrees")[$30^(∘)$] east of north and a speed of 20 miles per hour. There is a current in the water running #math.equation(block: false, alt: "45 degrees")[$45^(∘)$] south of east at a speed of 10 miles per hour.  What is the actual direction and speed of the ship?


        
          + #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub x equals 10 , v sub y equals 10 the square root of 3 , w sub x equals 5 the square root of 2 , w sub y equals minus 5 the square root of 2")[$v_(x) = 10 , " " v_(y) = 10 sqrt(3) , " " w_(x) = 5 sqrt(2) , " " w_(y) = − 5 sqrt(2)$]
+ 19.9 mph, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "59 degrees")[$59^(∘)$] east of north


        
      
      
        A plane is heading due south, with an airspeed of 180 kilometers per hour. The wind is blowing at 50 kilometers per hour in a direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "45 degrees")[$45^(∘)$] south of west. What is the actual direction and speed of the plane?


      
      
        The campground is 3.6 kilometers from the trail head in the direction #math.equation(block: false, alt: "20 degrees")[$20^(∘)$] west of north. A ranger station is located 2.3 kilometers from the campsite in a direction of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "8 degrees")[$8^(∘)$] west of south. What is the distance and direction from the trail head to the ranger station?


        
          + #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub x approximately equals minus 1.23 , v sub y approximately equals 3.38 , w sub x approximately equals minus 0.32 , w sub y approximately equals minus 2.23")[$v_(x) ≈ − 1.23 , " " v_(y) ≈ 3.38 , " " w_(x) ≈ − 0.32 , " " w_(y) ≈ − 2.23$]
+ 1.9 km, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "54.5 degrees")[$54.5^(∘)$] west of north


        
      
      
        The treasure is buried 40 paces due east from the dead tree. From the buried treasure, a hidden mine shaft is 100 paces distant in a direction of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "32 degrees")[$32^(∘)$] north of west. What is the distance and direction from the dead tree to mine shaft?


      
      Subtracting Vectors


      Multiplying a vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] by #math.equation(block: false, alt: "minus 1")[$− 1$] gives a vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "minus v")[$− bold(v)$] that has the same magnitude as #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$] but points in the opposite direction. We define subtraction of two vectors the same way we define subtraction of integers:


      #math.equation(block: true, alt: "u minus v equals u plus open parenthesis minus v close parenthesis")[$bold(u) − bold(v) = bold(u) + ( − bold(v) )$]
      That is, to subtract a vector #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$], we add its opposite.


      For Problems 43–50, draw the resultant vector.


      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "A equals u minus v")[$bold(A) = bold(u) − bold(v)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
          #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "B equals F minus z")[$bold(B) = bold(F) − bold(z)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "C equals v minus u")[$bold(C) = bold(v) − bold(u)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
          #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "D equals z minus G")[$bold(D) = bold(z) − bold(G)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "P equals w minus F")[$bold(P) = bold(w) − bold(F)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
          #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "Q equals u minus w")[$bold(Q) = bold(u) − bold(w)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "R equals G minus u")[$bold(R) = bold(G) − bold(u)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
          #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


        
      
      
        #math.equation(block: true, alt: "S equals v minus F")[$bold(S) = bold(v) − bold(F)$]


        #figure(figph[vectors on grid], alt: "vectors on grid", caption: none)


      
      
        Find the horizontal and vertical components of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "u")[$bold(u)$], #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$bold(v)$], and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "A")[$bold(A)$] from Problem 43. What do you notice when you compare the horizontal components of two vectors with the horizontal component of the difference?


        
          #math.equation(block: true, alt: "u sub x equals 2")[$u_(x) = 2$], #math.equation(block: true, alt: "u sub y equals 1")[$" " u_(y) = 1$], #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v sub x equals 1")[$" " v_(x) = 1$],#math.equation(block: true, alt: "v sub y equals minus 3")[$" " v_(y) = − 3$], #math.equation(block: true, alt: "A sub x equals 1")[$" " A_(x) = 1$], #math.equation(block: true, alt: "A sub y equals 4")[$" " A_(y) = 4$]; #math.equation(block: true, alt: "A sub x equals u sub x minus v sub x")[$" " A_(x) = u_(x) − v_(x)$], #math.equation(block: true, alt: "A sub y equals u sub y minus v sub y")[$" " A_(y) = u_(y) − v_(y)$]


        
      
      
        Find the horizontal and vertical components of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "z")[$bold(z)$], #math.equation(block: false, alt: "y")[$bold(y)$], and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "B")[$bold(B)$] from Problem 44. What do you notice when you compare the vertical components of two vectors with the vertical component of the difference?