#set document(title: "2.5 Motion Equations for Constant Acceleration in One Dimension", author: "OpenStax / XYZ Homework") #set page(width: 8.5in, height: auto, margin: 1in) #import "@preview/cetz:0.5.2" #set text(font: ("STIX Two Text", "Libertinus Serif", "New Computer Modern"), size: 10.5pt, lang: "en") #show math.equation: set text(font: ("STIX Two Math", "New Computer Modern Math")) #set par(justify: true, leading: 0.62em, spacing: 0.9em) #set enum(spacing: 1.1em) // room between list items so tall inline fractions don't collide #set list(spacing: 1.1em) #set table(stroke: 0.5pt + rgb("#c7ccd3")) #let BLUE = rgb("#183B6F") // brand navy — section bars + example/solution labels (white on navy 11.09:1) #let ORANGE = rgb("#A94509") // brand primary-700 — AA-safe deep orange for TEXT (5.93:1 on white; raw brand #F37021 is 2.94:1 and must never carry text) #let RED = rgb("#DC2626") // brand error-600 #let GREEN = rgb("#059669") // brand success-600 (decoration only; small green text uses green-text #007942) #show heading.where(level: 1): it => block(width: 100%, above: 0pt, below: 16pt, fill: gradient.linear(BLUE, rgb("#2C5AA0")), inset: (x: 14pt, y: 12pt), radius: 3pt, text(fill: white, weight: "bold", size: 19pt, it.body)) #show heading.where(level: 2): it => block(width: 100%, above: 18pt, below: 10pt, fill: BLUE, inset: (x: 10pt, y: 6pt), radius: 2pt, text(fill: white, weight: "bold", size: 12pt, it.body)) #show heading.where(level: 3): it => text(fill: ORANGE, weight: "bold", size: 12.5pt, it.body) #show heading.where(level: 4): it => text(fill: BLUE, weight: "bold", size: 10.5pt, it.body) #let examplebox(label, title, body) = block(width: 100%, breakable: true, fill: rgb("#EFF1F5"), stroke: 0.5pt + rgb("#CFDDF0"), radius: 4pt, inset: 10pt, above: 12pt, below: 12pt)[ #block(below: 6pt)[#box(fill: BLUE, inset: (x: 6pt, y: 2pt), radius: 2pt, text(fill: white, weight: "bold", size: 8.5pt, label)) #h(0.4em) #strong[#title]] #body] // rail = decorative left rule (raw brand token); labelcolor = AA-safe label text shade #let notebox(label, rail, labelcolor, tint, body) = block(width: 100%, breakable: true, fill: tint, stroke: (left: 3pt + rail), inset: (left: 10pt, rest: 8pt), radius: (right: 4pt), above: 11pt, below: 11pt)[ #text(fill: labelcolor, weight: "bold", size: 7.5pt, tracking: 0.5pt)[#upper(label)] #linebreak() #body] #let solutionbox(body) = block(above: 4pt, below: 8pt)[ #text(fill: BLUE, weight: "bold", size: 8.5pt)[Solution] #linebreak() #body] #let figph(msg) = block(width: 100%, height: 60pt, fill: rgb("#f6f7f9"), stroke: (paint: rgb("#c7ccd3"), dash: "dashed"), radius: 4pt, inset: 10pt)[ #align(center + horizon, text(fill: rgb("#889"), style: "italic", size: 9pt, msg))] // Standardize inlined figure sizes: measure the natural CeTZ canvas, then scale to a // consistent envelope (aspect-aware; see build_typst.py FIG_* constants). Unlike the // print preamble, dimensions are FLOORED: in an editor a user can trim a figure to a // degenerate 1-D shape (a bare line), and w/h or tw/w would then divide by zero. #let _STD_W = 3.5 #let _WIDE_W = 5.6 #let _MAX_H = 3.4 #let _ASPECT_WIDE = 2.2 #let _UPSCALE_MAX = 1.15 #let stdfig(body) = context { let m = measure(body) let w = calc.max(m.width / 1in, 0.01) let h = calc.max(m.height / 1in, 0.01) let tw = if w / h > _ASPECT_WIDE { _WIDE_W } else { _STD_W } let s = calc.min(tw / w, _MAX_H / h, _UPSCALE_MAX) align(center, box(scale(x: s * 100%, y: s * 100%, reflow: true, body))) } #show figure: set block(breakable: false) #set figure(gap: 8pt) #show figure.caption: set text(size: 8.5pt, fill: rgb("#555")) == 2.5#h(0.6em)Motion Equations for Constant Acceleration in One Dimension === Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Calculate displacement of an object that is not accelerating, given initial position and velocity. - Calculate final velocity of an accelerating object, given initial velocity, acceleration, and time. - Calculate displacement and final position of an accelerating object, given initial position, initial velocity, time, and acceleration. #figure(figph[Four men racing up a river in their kayaks.], alt: "Four men racing up a river in their kayaks.", caption: [Kinematic equations can help us describe and predict the motion of moving objects such as these kayaks racing in Newbury, England.]) We might know that the greater the acceleration of, say, a car moving away from a stop sign, the greater the displacement in a given time. But we have not developed a specific equation that relates acceleration and displacement. In this section, we develop some convenient equations for kinematic relationships, starting from the definitions of displacement, velocity, and acceleration already covered. === Notation: #emph[t], #emph[x], #emph[v], #emph[a] First, let us make some simplifications in notation. Taking the initial time to be zero, as if time is measured with a stopwatch, is a great simplification. Since elapsed time is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Δ t equals t sub f minus t sub 0")[$Δ t = t_(f) − t_(0)$], taking #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t sub 0 equals 0")[$t_(0) = 0$] means that #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Δ t equals t sub f")[$Δ t = t_(f)$], the final time on the stopwatch. When initial time is taken to be zero, we use the subscript 0 to denote initial values of position and velocity. That is, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x sub 0")[$x_(0)$] #emph[is the initial position] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub 0")[$v_(0)$] #emph[is the initial velocity]. We put no subscripts on the final values. That is, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$] #emph[is the final time], #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$] #emph[is the final position], and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$v$] #emph[is the final velocity]. This gives a simpler expression for elapsed time—now, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Δ t equals t")[$Δ t = t$]. It also simplifies the expression for displacement, which is now #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Δ x equals x minus x sub 0")[$Δ x = x − x_(0)$]. Also, it simplifies the expression for change in velocity, which is now #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Δ v equals v minus v sub 0")[$Δ v = v − v_(0)$]. To summarize, using the simplified notation, with the initial time taken to be zero, #math.equation(block: true, alt: "Δ t, equals, t; Δ x, equals, x minus x sub 0; Δ v, equals, v minus v sub 0")[$Δ t & = & t \ Δ x & = & x − x_(0) \ Δ v & = & v − v_(0)$] where #emph[the subscript 0 denotes an initial value and the absence of a subscript denotes a final value] in whatever motion is under consideration. We now make the important assumption that #emph[acceleration is constant]. This assumption allows us to avoid using calculus to find instantaneous acceleration. Since acceleration is constant, the average and instantaneous accelerations are equal. That is, #math.equation(block: true, alt: "a minus equals a equals constant ,")[$accent(a, −) = a = "constant" ,$] so we use the symbol #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a")[$a$] for acceleration at all times. Assuming acceleration to be constant does not seriously limit the situations we can study nor degrade the accuracy of our treatment. For one thing, acceleration #emph[is] constant in a great number of situations. Furthermore, in many other situations we can accurately describe motion by assuming a constant acceleration equal to the average acceleration for that motion. Finally, in motions where acceleration changes drastically, such as a car accelerating to top speed and then braking to a stop, the motion can be considered in separate parts, each of which has its own constant acceleration. #notebox("Note", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[ #emph[Solving for Displacement (#math.equation(block: false, alt: "Δ x")[$Δ x$]) and Final Position (#math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]) from Average Velocity when Acceleration (#math.equation(block: false, alt: "a")[$a$]) is Constant] To get our first two new equations, we start with the definition of average velocity: #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v minus equals the fraction Δ x over Δ t .")[$accent(v, −) = frac(Δ x, Δ t) "."$] Substituting the simplified notation for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Δ x")[$Δ x$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Δ t")[$Δ t$] yields #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v minus equals the fraction x minus x sub 0 over t .")[$accent(v, −) = frac(x − x_(0), t) "."$] Solving for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$] yields #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v minus t ,")[$x = x_(0) + accent(v, −) t ","$] where the average velocity is #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v minus equals the fraction v sub 0 plus v over 2 open parenthesis constant a close parenthesis .")[$accent(v, −) = frac(v_(0) + v, 2) #h(0.25em) ( "constant " #h(0.25em) a ) "."$] ] The equation #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v minus equals the fraction v sub 0 plus v over 2")[$accent(v, −) = frac(v_(0) + v, 2)$] reflects the fact that, when acceleration is constant, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$v$] is just the simple average of the initial and final velocities. For example, if you steadily increase your velocity (that is, with constant acceleration) from 30 to 60 km/h, then your average velocity during this steady increase is 45 km/h. Using the equation #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v minus equals the fraction v sub 0 plus v over 2")[$accent(v, −) = frac(v_(0) + v, 2)$] to check this, we see that #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v minus equals the fraction v sub 0 plus v over 2 equals the fraction 30 km/h plus 60 km/h over 2 equals 45 km/h,")[$accent(v, −) = frac(v_(0) + v, 2) = frac("30 km/h" + "60 km/h", 2) = "45 km/h,"$] which seems logical. #examplebox("Example 1")[Calculating Displacement: How Far does the Jogger Run?][ A jogger runs down a straight stretch of road with an average velocity of 4.00 m/s for 2.00 min. What is his final position, taking his initial position to be zero? Strategy Draw a sketch. #figure(figph[Velocity vector arrow labeled v equals 4 point zero zero meters per second over an x axis displaying initial and final positions. Final position is labeled x equals question mark.], alt: "Velocity vector arrow labeled v equals 4 point zero zero meters per second over an x axis displaying initial and final positions. Final position is labeled x equals question mark.", caption: none) The final position #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$] is given by the equation #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v minus t .")[$x = x_(0) + accent(v, −) t .$] To find #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$], we identify the values of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x sub 0")[$x_(0)$], #emph[#math.equation(block: false, alt: "v minus")[$accent(v, −)$]], and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$] from the statement of the problem and substitute them into the equation. Solution 1. Identify the knowns. #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v minus equals 4 . 00 m/s")[$accent(v, −) = 4 "." "00 m/s"$], #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Δ t equals 2.00 min")[$Δ t = 2.00 #h(1em) "min"$], and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x sub 0 equals 0 m")[$x_(0) = "0 m"$]. 2. Enter the known values into the equation. #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v minus t equals 0 plus 4 . 00 m/s 120 s equals 480 m")[$x = x_(0) + accent(v, −) t = 0 + 4 "." "00 m/s" "120 s" = "480 m"$] Discussion Velocity and final displacement are both positive, which means they are in the same direction. ] The equation #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v minus t")[$x = x_(0) + accent(v, −) t$] gives insight into the relationship between displacement, average velocity, and time. It shows, for example, that displacement is a linear function of average velocity. (By linear function, we mean that displacement depends on #emph[#math.equation(block: false, alt: "v minus")[$accent(v, −)$]] rather than on #emph[#math.equation(block: false, alt: "v minus")[$accent(v, −)$]] raised to some other power, such as #emph[#math.equation(block: false, alt: "v minus squared")[$attach(accent(v, −), t: 2)$]]. When graphed, linear functions look like straight lines with a constant slope.) On a car trip, for example, we will get twice as far in a given time if we average 90 km/h than if we average 45 km/h. #figure(figph[Line graph showing displacement in meters versus average velocity in meters per second. The line is straight with a positive slope. Displacement x increases linearly with increase in average velocity v.], alt: "Line graph showing displacement in meters versus average velocity in meters per second. The line is straight with a positive slope. Displacement x increases linearly with increase in average velocity v.", caption: [There is a linear relationship between displacement and average velocity. For a given time #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$], an object moving twice as fast as another object will move twice as far as the other object.]) #notebox("Note", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[ #emph[Solving for Final Velocity] We can derive another useful equation by manipulating the definition of acceleration. #math.equation(block: true, alt: "a equals the fraction Δ v over Δ t")[$a = frac(Δ v, Δ t)$] Substituting the simplified notation for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Δ v")[$Δ v$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Δ t")[$Δ t$] gives us #math.equation(block: true, alt: "a equals the fraction v minus v sub 0 over t open parenthesis constant a close parenthesis .")[$a = frac(v − v_(0), t) #h(0.25em) ( "constant" #h(0.25em) a ) "."$] Solving for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$v$] yields #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v equals v sub 0 plus at open parenthesis constant a close parenthesis .")[$v = v_(0) + "at" #h(0.25em) ( "constant" #h(0.25em) a ) "."$] ] #examplebox("Example 2")[Calculating Final Velocity: An Airplane Slowing Down after Landing][ An airplane lands with an initial velocity of 70.0 m/s and then decelerates at #math.equation(block: false, alt: "1 . 50 m/s squared")[$1 "." attach("50 m/s", t: 2)$] for 40.0 s. What is its final velocity? Strategy Draw a sketch. We draw the acceleration vector in the direction opposite the velocity vector because the plane is decelerating. #figure(figph[Velocity vector arrow pointing toward the right in the positive x direction. Initial velocity equals seventy meters per second. Final velocity equals question mark. An acceleration vector arrow pointing toward the left labeled a equals negative 1 point 50 meters per second squared.], alt: "Velocity vector arrow pointing toward the right in the positive x direction. Initial velocity equals seventy meters per second. Final velocity equals question mark. An acceleration vector arrow pointing toward the left labeled a equals negative 1 point 50 meters per second squared.", caption: none) Solution 1. Identify the knowns. #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub 0 equals 70 . 0 m/s")[$v_(0) = "70" "." "0 m/s"$], #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a equals minus 1 . 50 m/s squared")[$a = − 1 "." attach("50 m/s", t: 2)$], #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t equals 40 . 0 s")[$t = "40" "." 0 #h(0.25em) "s"$]. 2. Identify the unknown. In this case, it is final velocity, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub f")[$v_(f)$]#sub[.] 3. Determine which equation to use. We can calculate the final velocity using the equation #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v equals v sub 0 plus at")[$v = v_(0) + "at"$]. 4. Plug in the known values and solve. #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v equals v sub 0 plus at equals 70 . 0 m/s plus minus 1 . 50 m/s squared 40 . 0 s equals 10 . 0 m/s")[$v = v_(0) + "at" = "70" "." "0 m/s" + − 1 "." attach("50 m/s", t: 2) "40" "." "0 s" = "10" "." "0 m/s"$] Discussion The final velocity is much less than the initial velocity, as desired when slowing down, but still positive. With jet engines, reverse thrust could be maintained long enough to stop the plane and start moving it backward. That would be indicated by a negative final velocity, which is not the case here. #figure(figph[An airplane moving toward the right at two points in time. At time equals 0 the velocity vector arrow points toward the right and is labeled seventy meters per second. The acceleration vector arrow points toward the left and is labeled negative 1 point 5 meters per second squared. At time equals forty seconds, the velocity arrow is shorter, points toward the right, and is labeled ten meters per second. The acceleration vector arrow is still pointing toward the left and is labeled a equals negative 1 point 5 meters per second squared.], alt: "An airplane moving toward the right at two points in time. At time equals 0 the velocity vector arrow points toward the right and is labeled seventy meters per second. The acceleration vector arrow points toward the left and is labeled negative 1 point 5 meters per second squared. At time equals forty seconds, the velocity arrow is shorter, points toward the right, and is labeled ten meters per second. The acceleration vector arrow is still pointing toward the left and is labeled a equals negative 1 point 5 meters per second squared.", caption: [The airplane lands with an initial velocity of 70.0 m/s and slows to a final velocity of 10.0 m/s before heading for the terminal. Note that the acceleration is negative because its direction is opposite to its velocity, which is positive.]) ] In addition to being useful in problem solving, the equation #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v equals v sub 0 plus at")[$v = v_(0) + "at"$] gives us insight into the relationships among velocity, acceleration, and time. From it we can see, for example, that - final velocity depends on how large the acceleration is and how long it lasts - if the acceleration is zero, then the final velocity equals the initial velocity #math.equation(block: false, alt: "open parenthesis v equals v sub 0 close parenthesis")[$( v = v_(0) )$], as expected (i.e., velocity is constant) - if #emph[#math.equation(block: false, alt: "a")[$a$]] is negative, then the final velocity is less than the initial velocity (All of these observations fit our intuition, and it is always useful to examine basic equations in light of our intuition and experiences to check that they do indeed describe nature accurately.) #notebox("Note", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[ #emph[Making Connections: Real-World Connection] #figure(figph[Space shuttle blasting off at night.], alt: "Space shuttle blasting off at night.", caption: [The Space Shuttle #emph[Endeavor] blasts off from the Kennedy Space Center in February 2010.]) An intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) has a larger average acceleration than the Space Shuttle and achieves a greater velocity in the first minute or two of flight (actual ICBM burn times are classified—short-burn-time missiles are more difficult for an enemy to destroy). But the Space Shuttle obtains a greater final velocity, so that it can orbit the earth rather than come directly back down as an ICBM does. The Space Shuttle does this by accelerating for a longer time. ] #notebox("Note", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[ #emph[Solving for Final Position When Velocity is Not Constant (#math.equation(block: false, alt: "a not equal to 0")[$a ≠ 0$])] We can combine the equations above to find a third equation that allows us to calculate the final position of an object experiencing constant acceleration. We start with #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v equals v sub 0 plus at .")[$v = v_(0) + "at" .$] Adding #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub 0")[$v_(0)$] to each side of this equation and dividing by 2 gives #math.equation(block: true, alt: "the fraction v sub 0 plus v over 2 equals v sub 0 plus the fraction 1 over 2 at .")[$frac(v_(0) + v, 2) = v_(0) + frac(1, 2) "at" "."$] Since #math.equation(block: false, alt: "the fraction v sub 0 plus v over 2 equals v minus")[$frac(v_(0) + v, 2) = accent(v, −)$] for constant acceleration, then #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v minus equals v sub 0 plus the fraction 1 over 2 at .")[$accent(v, −) = v_(0) + frac(1, 2) "at" "."$] Now we substitute this expression for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v minus")[$accent(v, −)$] into the equation for displacement, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v minus t")[$x = x_(0) + accent(v, −) t$], yielding #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v sub 0 t plus the fraction 1 over 2 at squared open parenthesis constant a close parenthesis .")[$x = x_(0) + v_(0) t + frac(1, 2) "at"^(2) #h(0.25em) ( "constant " #h(0.25em) a ) "."$] ] #examplebox("Example 3")[Calculating Displacement of an Accelerating Object: Dragsters][ Dragsters can achieve average accelerations of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "26 . 0 m/s squared")[$"26" "." attach("0 m/s", t: 2)$]. Suppose such a dragster accelerates from rest at this rate for 5.56 s. How far does it travel in this time? #figure(figph[Dragster accelerating down a race track.], alt: "Dragster accelerating down a race track.", caption: [U.S. Army Top Fuel pilot Tony “The Sarge” Schumacher begins a race with a controlled burnout.]) Strategy Draw a sketch. #figure(figph[Acceleration vector arrow pointing toward the right in the positive x direction, labeled a equals twenty-six point 0 meters per second squared. x position graph with initial position at the left end of the graph. The right end of the graph is labeled x equals question mark.], alt: "Acceleration vector arrow pointing toward the right in the positive x direction, labeled a equals twenty-six point 0 meters per second squared. x position graph with initial position at the left end of the graph. The right end of the graph is labeled x equals question mark.", caption: none) We are asked to find displacement, which is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$] if we take #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x sub 0")[$x_(0)$] to be zero. (Think about it like the starting line of a race. It can be anywhere, but we call it 0 and measure all other positions relative to it.) We can use the equation #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v sub 0 t plus the fraction 1 over 2 at squared")[$x = x_(0) + v_(0) t + frac(1, 2) "at"^(2)$]once we identify #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub 0")[$v_(0)$], #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a")[$a$], and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$] from the statement of the problem. Solution 1. Identify the knowns. Starting from rest means that #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub 0 equals 0")[$v_(0) = 0$], #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a")[$a$] is given as #math.equation(block: false, alt: "26 . 0 m/s squared")[$"26" "." 0 #h(0.25em) "m/s"^(2)$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$] is given as 5.56 s. 2. Plug the known values into the equation to solve for the unknown #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]: #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v sub 0 t plus the fraction 1 over 2 at squared .")[$x = x_(0) + v_(0) t + frac(1, 2) "at"^(2) "."$] Since the initial position and velocity are both zero, this simplifies to #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals the fraction 1 over 2 at squared .")[$x = frac(1, 2) "at"^(2) "."$] Substituting the identified values of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a")[$a$] and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$] gives #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals the fraction 1 over 2 26 . 0 m/s squared 5 . 56 s squared ,")[$x = frac(1, 2) "26" "." attach("0 m/s", t: 2) attach(5 "." "56 s", t: 2) ,$] yielding #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals 402 m.")[$x = "402 m."$] Discussion If we convert 402 m to miles, we find that the distance covered is very close to one quarter of a mile, the standard distance for drag racing. So the answer is reasonable. This is an impressive displacement in only 5.56 s, but top-notch dragsters can do a quarter mile in even less time than this. ] What else can we learn by examining the equation #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v sub 0 t plus the fraction 1 over 2 at squared ?")[$x = x_(0) + v_(0) t + frac(1, 2) "at"^(2) ?$] We see that: - displacement depends on the square of the elapsed time when acceleration is not zero. In , the dragster covers only one fourth of the total distance in the first half of the elapsed time - if acceleration is zero, then the initial velocity equals average velocity (#math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub 0 equals v minus")[$v_(0) = accent(v, −)$]) and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v sub 0 t plus the fraction 1 over 2 at squared")[$x = x_(0) + v_(0) t + frac(1, 2) "at"^(2)$] becomes #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v sub 0 t")[$x = x_(0) + v_(0) t$] #notebox("Note", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[ #emph[Solving for Final Velocity when Velocity Is Not Constant (#math.equation(block: false, alt: "a not equal to 0")[$a ≠ 0$])] A fourth useful equation can be obtained from another algebraic manipulation of previous equations. If we solve #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v equals v sub 0 plus at")[$v = v_(0) + "at"$] for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$], we get #math.equation(block: true, alt: "t equals the fraction v minus v sub 0 over a .")[$t = frac(v − v_(0), a) "."$] Substituting this and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v minus equals the fraction v sub 0 plus v over 2")[$accent(v, −) = frac(v_(0) + v, 2)$] into #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v minus t")[$x = x_(0) + accent(v, −) t$], we get #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v squared equals v 0 2 plus 2 a x minus x sub 0 open parenthesis constant a close parenthesis .")[$v^(2) = v_(0)^(2) + 2 a x − x_(0) #h(0.25em) ( "constant" #h(0.25em) a ) "."$] ] #examplebox("Example 4")[Calculating Final Velocity: Dragsters][ Calculate the final velocity of the dragster in without using information about time. Strategy Draw a sketch. #figure(figph[Acceleration vector arrow pointing toward the right, labeled twenty-six point zero meters per second squared. Initial velocity equals 0. Final velocity equals question mark.], alt: "Acceleration vector arrow pointing toward the right, labeled twenty-six point zero meters per second squared. Initial velocity equals 0. Final velocity equals question mark.", caption: none) The equation #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v squared equals v 0 2 plus 2 a open parenthesis x minus x sub 0 close parenthesis")[$v^(2) = v_(0)^(2) + 2 a ( x − x_(0) )$] is ideally suited to this task because it relates velocities, acceleration, and displacement, and no time information is required. Solution 1. Identify the known values. We know that #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub 0 equals 0")[$v_(0) = 0$], since the dragster starts from rest. Then we note that #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x minus x sub 0 equals 402 m")[$x − x_(0) = "402 m"$] (this was the answer in ). Finally, the average acceleration was given to be #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a equals 26 . 0 m/s squared")[$a = "26" "." attach("0 m/s", t: 2)$]. 2. Plug the knowns into the equation #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v squared equals v 0 2 plus 2 a open parenthesis x minus x sub 0 close parenthesis")[$v^(2) = v_(0)^(2) + 2 a ( x − x_(0) )$] and solve for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v .")[$v .$] #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v squared equals 0 plus 2 26 . 0 m/s squared 402 m .")[$v^(2) = 0 + 2 "26" "." attach("0 m/s", t: 2) "402 m" .$] Thus #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v squared equals 2 . 09 times 10 to the power 4 m squared /s squared .")[$v^(2) = 2 "." "09" × "10"^(4) #h(0.25em) "m"^(2) "/s"^(2) .$] To get #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$v$], we take the square root: #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v equals the square root of 2 . 09 times 10 to the power 4 m squared /s squared equals 145 m/s .")[$v = sqrt(2 "." "09" × "10"^(4) #h(0.25em) attach(" m", t: 2) "/s"^(2)) = "145 m/s" .$] Discussion 145 m/s is about 522 km/h or about 324 mi/h, but even this breakneck speed is short of the record for the quarter mile. Also, note that a square root has two values; we took the positive value to indicate a velocity in the same direction as the acceleration. ] An examination of the equation #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v squared equals v 0 2 plus 2 a open parenthesis x minus x sub 0 close parenthesis")[$v^(2) = v_(0)^(2) + 2 a ( x − x_(0) )$] can produce further insights into the general relationships among physical quantities: - The final velocity depends on how large the acceleration is and the distance over which it acts - For a fixed deceleration, a car that is going twice as fast doesn’t simply stop in twice the distance—it takes much further to stop. (This is why we have reduced speed zones near schools.) === Putting Equations Together In the following examples, we further explore one-dimensional motion, but in situations requiring slightly more algebraic manipulation. The examples also give insight into problem-solving techniques. The box below provides easy reference to the equations needed. #notebox("Note", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[ #emph[Summary of Kinematic Equations (constant #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a")[$a$])] #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v minus t")[$x = x_(0) + accent(v, −) t$] #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v minus equals the fraction v sub 0 plus v over 2")[$accent(v, −) = frac(v_(0) + v, 2)$] #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v equals v sub 0 plus at")[$v = v_(0) + "at"$] #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v sub 0 t plus the fraction 1 over 2 at squared")[$x = x_(0) + v_(0) t + frac(1, 2) "at"^(2)$] #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v squared equals v 0 2 plus 2 a x minus x sub 0")[$v^(2) = v_(0)^(2) + 2 a x − x_(0)$] ] #examplebox("Example 5")[Calculating Displacement: How Far Does a Car Go When Coming to a Halt?][ On dry concrete, a car can decelerate at a rate of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "7 . 00 m/s squared")[$7 "." attach("00 m/s", t: 2)$], whereas on wet concrete it can decelerate at only #math.equation(block: false, alt: "5 . 00 m/s squared")[$5 "." attach("00 m/s", t: 2)$]. Find the distances necessary to stop a car moving at 30.0 m/s (about 110 km/h) (a) on dry concrete and (b) on wet concrete. (c) Repeat both calculations, finding the displacement from the point where the driver sees a traffic light turn red, taking into account his reaction time of 0.500 s to get his foot on the brake. Strategy Draw a sketch. #figure(figph[Initial velocity equals thirty meters per second. Final velocity equals 0. Acceleration dry equals negative 7 point zero zero meters per second squared. Acceleration wet equals negative 5 point zero zero meters per second squared.], alt: "Initial velocity equals thirty meters per second. Final velocity equals 0. Acceleration dry equals negative 7 point zero zero meters per second squared. Acceleration wet equals negative 5 point zero zero meters per second squared.", caption: none) In order to determine which equations are best to use, we need to list all of the known values and identify exactly what we need to solve for. We shall do this explicitly in the next several examples, using tables to set them off. Solution for (a) 1. Identify the knowns and what we want to solve for. We know that #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub 0 equals 30 . 0 m/s")[$v_(0) = "30" "." "0 m/s"$]; #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v equals 0")[$v = "0 "$]; #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a equals minus 7 . 00 m/s squared")[$a = − 7 "." "00" #h(0.25em) "m/s"^(2)$] (#math.equation(block: false, alt: "a")[$a$] is negative because it is in a direction opposite to velocity). We take #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x sub 0")[$x_(0)$] to be 0. We are looking for displacement #math.equation(block: false, alt: "Δ x")[$Δ x$], or #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x minus x sub 0")[$x − x_(0)$]. 2. Identify the equation that will help up solve the problem. The best equation to use is #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v squared equals v 0 2 plus 2 a x minus x sub 0 .")[$v^(2) = v_(0)^(2) + 2 a x − x_(0) .$] This equation is best because it includes only one unknown, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]. We know the values of all the other variables in this equation. (There are other equations that would allow us to solve for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$], but they require us to know the stopping time, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$], which we do not know. We could use them but it would entail additional calculations.) 3. Rearrange the equation to solve for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]. #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x minus x sub 0 equals the fraction v squared minus v 0 2 over 2 a")[$x − x_(0) = frac(v^(2) − v_(0)^(2), 2 a)$] 4. Enter known values. #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x minus 0 equals the fraction 0 squared minus 30 . 0 m/s squared over 2 minus 7 . 00 m/s squared")[$x − 0 = frac(0^(2) − attach("30" "." "0 m/s", t: 2), 2 − 7 "." attach("00 m/s", t: 2))$] Thus, #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals 64 . 3 m on dry concrete .")[$x = "64" "." "3 m on dry concrete" "."$] Solution for (b) This part can be solved in exactly the same manner as Part A. The only difference is that the deceleration is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "minus 5 . 00 m/s squared")[$− 5 "." attach("00 m/s", t: 2)$]. The result is #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x sub wet equals 90 . 0 m on wet concrete .")[$x_("wet") = "90" "." "0 m on wet concrete" "."$] Solution for (c) Once the driver reacts, the stopping distance is the same as it is in Parts A and B for dry and wet concrete. So to answer this question, we need to calculate how far the car travels during the reaction time, and then add that to the stopping time. It is reasonable to assume that the velocity remains constant during the driver’s reaction time. 1. Identify the knowns and what we want to solve for. We know that #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v minus equals 30.0 m/s")[$accent(v, −) = "30.0 m/s"$]; #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t sub reaction equals 0.500 s")[$t_("reaction") = 0.500 #h(0.15em) "s"$]; #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a sub reaction equals 0")[$a_("reaction") = 0$]. We take #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x sub 0 minus reaction")[$x_(0 − "reaction")$] to be 0. We are looking for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x sub reaction")[$x_("reaction")$]. 2. Identify the best equation to use. #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v minus t")[$x = x_(0) + accent(v, −) t$] works well because the only unknown value is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$], which is what we want to solve for. 3. Plug in the knowns to solve the equation. #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals 0 plus 30 . 0 m/s 0 . 500 s equals 15 . 0 m .")[$x = 0 + "30" "." "0 m/s" 0 "." "500 s" = "15" "." "0 m" .$] This means the car travels 15.0 m while the driver reacts, making the total displacements in the two cases of dry and wet concrete 15.0 m greater than if he reacted instantly. 4. Add the displacement during the reaction time to the displacement when braking. #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x sub braking plus x sub reaction equals x sub total")[$x_("braking") + x_("reaction") = x_("total")$] + 64.3 m + 15.0 m = 79.3 m when dry + 90.0 m + 15.0 m = 105 m when wet #figure(figph[Diagram showing the various braking distances necessary for stopping a car. With no reaction time considered, braking distance is 64 point 3 meters on a dry surface and 90 meters on a wet surface. With reaction time of 0 point 500 seconds, braking distance is 79 point 3 meters on a dry surface and 105 meters on a wet surface.], alt: "Diagram showing the various braking distances necessary for stopping a car. With no reaction time considered, braking distance is 64 point 3 meters on a dry surface and 90 meters on a wet surface. With reaction time of 0 point 500 seconds, braking distance is 79 point 3 meters on a dry surface and 105 meters on a wet surface.", caption: [The distance necessary to stop a car varies greatly, depending on road conditions and driver reaction time. Shown here are the braking distances for dry and wet pavement, as calculated in this example, for a car initially traveling at 30.0 m/s. Also shown are the total distances traveled from the point where the driver first sees a light turn red, assuming a 0.500 s reaction time.]) Discussion The displacements found in this example seem reasonable for stopping a fast-moving car. It should take longer to stop a car on wet rather than dry pavement. It is interesting that reaction time adds significantly to the displacements. But more important is the general approach to solving problems. We identify the knowns and the quantities to be determined and then find an appropriate equation. There is often more than one way to solve a problem. The various parts of this example can in fact be solved by other methods, but the solutions presented above are the shortest. ] #examplebox("Example 6")[Calculating Time: A Car Merges into Traffic][ Suppose a car merges into freeway traffic on a 200-m-long ramp. If its initial velocity is 10.0 m/s and it accelerates at #math.equation(block: false, alt: "2 . 00 m/s squared")[$2 "." attach("00 m/s", t: 2)$], how long does it take to travel the 200 m up the ramp? (Such information might be useful to a traffic engineer.) Strategy Draw a sketch. #figure(figph[A line segment with ends labeled x subs zero equals zero and x = two hundred. Above the line segment, the equation t equals question mark indicates that time is unknown. Three vectors, all pointing in the direction of x equals 200, represent the other knowns and unknowns. They are labeled v sub zero equals ten point zero meters per second, v equals question mark, and a equals two point zero zero meters per second squared.], alt: "A line segment with ends labeled x subs zero equals zero and x = two hundred. Above the line segment, the equation t equals question mark indicates that time is unknown. Three vectors, all pointing in the direction of x equals 200, represent the other knowns and unknowns. They are labeled v sub zero equals ten point zero meters per second, v equals question mark, and a equals two point zero zero meters per second squared.", caption: none) We are asked to solve for the time #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$]. As before, we identify the known quantities in order to choose a convenient physical relationship (that is, an equation with one unknown, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$]). Solution 1. Identify the knowns and what we want to solve for. We know that #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub 0 equals 10 m/s")[$v_(0) = "10 m/s"$]; #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a equals 2 . 00 m/s squared")[$a = 2 "." attach("00 m/s", t: 2)$]; and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x equals 200 m")[$x = "200 m"$]. 2. We need to solve for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$]. Choose the best equation. #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v sub 0 t plus the fraction 1 over 2 at squared")[$x = x_(0) + v_(0) t + frac(1, 2) "at"^(2)$] works best because the only unknown in the equation is the variable #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$] for which we need to solve. 3. We will need to rearrange the equation to solve for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$]. In this case, it will be easier to plug in the knowns first. #math.equation(block: true, alt: "200 m equals 0 m plus 10 . 0 m/s t plus the fraction 1 over 2 2 . 00 m/s squared t squared")[$"200 m" = "0 m" + "10" "." "0 m/s" t + frac(1, 2) 2 "." attach("00 m/s", t: 2) #h(0.15em) t^(2)$] 4. Simplify the equation. The units of meters (m) cancel because they are in each term. We can get the units of seconds (s) to cancel by taking #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t equals t s")[$t = t #h(0.25em) "s"$], where #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$] is the magnitude of time and s is the unit. Doing so leaves #math.equation(block: true, alt: "200 equals 10 t plus t squared .")[$"200" = "10" t + t^(2) "."$] 5. Use the quadratic formula to solve for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$]#emph[.] (a) Rearrange the equation to get 0 on one side of the equation. #math.equation(block: true, alt: "t squared plus 10 t minus 200 equals 0")[$t^(2) + "10" t − "200" = 0$] This is a quadratic equation of the form #math.equation(block: true, alt: "at squared plus bt plus c equals 0 ,")[$"at"^(2) + "bt" + c = 0 ,$] where the constants are #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a equals 1 . 00, b equals 10 . 0, and c equals minus 200")[$a = 1 "." "00," #h(0.25em) b = "10" "." "0," #h(0.25em) "and" #h(0.25em) c = − "200"$]. (b) Its solutions are given by the quadratic formula: #math.equation(block: true, alt: "t equals the fraction minus b plus or minus the square root of b squared minus 4 ac over 2 a .")[$t = frac(− b ± sqrt(b^(2) − 4 "ac"), 2 a) "."$] This yields two solutions for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$], which are #math.equation(block: true, alt: "t equals 10 . 0 and minus 20 . 0 .")[$t = "10" "." 0 #h(0.25em) "and" − "20" "." 0 .$] In this case, then, the time is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t equals t")[$t = t$] in seconds, or #math.equation(block: true, alt: "t equals 10 . 0 s and minus 20 . 0 s .")[$t = "10" "." 0 #h(0.25em) "s" #h(0.25em) "and" − "20" "." 0 #h(0.25em) "s" .$] A negative value for time is unreasonable, since it would mean that the event happened 20 s before the motion began. We can discard that solution. Thus, #math.equation(block: true, alt: "t equals 10 . 0 s .")[$t = "10" "." 0 #h(0.25em) "s" .$] Discussion Whenever an equation contains an unknown squared, there will be two solutions. In some problems both solutions are meaningful, but in others, such as the above, only one solution is reasonable. The 10.0 s answer seems reasonable for a typical freeway on-ramp. ] With the basics of kinematics established, we can go on to many other interesting examples and applications. In the process of developing kinematics, we have also glimpsed a general approach to problem solving that produces both correct answers and insights into physical relationships. Problem-Solving Basics discusses problem-solving basics and outlines an approach that will help you succeed in this invaluable task. #notebox("Note", rgb("#8a94a6"), rgb("#556666"), rgb("#f7f8fa"))[ #emph[Making Connections: Take-Home Experiment—Breaking News] We have been using SI units of meters per second squared to describe some examples of acceleration or deceleration of cars, runners, and trains. To achieve a better feel for these numbers, one can measure the braking deceleration of a car doing a slow (and safe) stop. Recall that, for average acceleration, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a minus equals Δ v / Δ t")[$accent(a, −) = Δ v / Δ t$]. While traveling in a car, slowly apply the brakes as you come up to a stop sign. Have a passenger note the initial speed in miles per hour and the time taken (in seconds) to stop. From this, calculate the deceleration in miles per hour per second. Convert this to meters per second squared and compare with other decelerations mentioned in this chapter. Calculate the distance traveled in braking. ] A rocket accelerates at a rate of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "20 m/s squared")[$attach("20 m/s", t: 2)$] during launch. How long does it take the rocket to reach a velocity of 400 m/s? #solutionbox[ To answer this, choose an equation that allows you to solve for time #emph[#math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$]], given only #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a")[$a$], #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v sub 0")[$v_(0)$], and #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v")[$v$]. #math.equation(block: true, alt: "v equals v sub 0 plus at")[$v #h(0.15em) = #h(0.15em) v_(0) + "at"$] Rearrange to solve for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "t")[$t$]#emph[.] #math.equation(block: true, alt: "t equals the fraction v minus v 0 over a equals the fraction 400 m/s minus 0 m/s over 20 m/s squared equals 20 s")[$t = frac(v − v attach(, bl: 0), a) = frac("400 m/s" − "0 m/s", attach("20 m/s", t: 2)) = "20 s"$] ] === Test Prep for AP Courses A group of students is attempting to determine the average acceleration of a marble released from the top of a long ramp. Below is a set of data representing the marble's position with respect to time. #figure(table( columns: 2, align: left, inset: 6pt, table.header([Position (cm)], [Time (s)]), [0.0], [0.0], [0.3], [0.5], [1.25], [1.0], [2.8], [1.5], [5.0], [2.0], [7.75], [2.5], [11.3], [3.0], )) Use the data table above to construct a graph determining the acceleration of the marble. Select a set of data points from the table and plot those points on the graph. Fill in the blank column in the table for any quantities you graph other than the given data. Label the axes and indicate the scale for each. Draw a best-fit line or curve through your data points. Using the best-fit line, determine the value of the marble's acceleration. === Section Summary - To simplify calculations we take acceleration to be constant, so that #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a minus equals a")[$accent(a, −) = a$] at all times. - We also take initial time to be zero. - Initial position and velocity are given a subscript 0; final values have no subscript. Thus, #math.equation(block: true, alt: "Δ t, equals, t; Δ x, equals, x minus x sub 0; Δ v, equals, v minus v sub 0")[$Δ t & = & t \ Δ x & = & x − x_(0) \ Δ v & = & v − v_(0)$] - The following kinematic equations for motion with constant #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a")[$a$] are useful: #math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v minus t")[$x = x_(0) + accent(v, −) t$]#math.equation(block: true, alt: "v minus equals the fraction v sub 0 plus v over 2")[$accent(v, −) = frac(v_(0) + v, 2)$]#math.equation(block: true, alt: "v equals v sub 0 plus at")[$v = v_(0) + "at"$]#math.equation(block: true, alt: "x equals x sub 0 plus v sub 0 t plus the fraction 1 over 2 at squared")[$x = x_(0) + v_(0) t + frac(1, 2) "at"^(2)$]#math.equation(block: true, alt: "v squared equals v 0 2 plus 2 a x minus x sub 0")[$v^(2) = v_(0)^(2) + 2 a x − x_(0)$] - In vertical motion, #math.equation(block: false, alt: "y")[$y$] is substituted for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "x")[$x$]. === Problems & Exercises An Olympic-class sprinter starts a race with an acceleration of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "4 . 50 m/s squared")[$4 "." attach("50 m/s", t: 2)$]. (a) What is her speed 2.40 s later? (b) Sketch a graph of her position vs. time for this period. #solutionbox[ (a) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "10 . 8 m/s")[$"10" "." 8 #h(0.25em) "m/s"$] (b) #figure(figph[Line graph of position in meters versus time in seconds. The line begins at the origin and is concave up, with its slope increasing over time.], alt: "Line graph of position in meters versus time in seconds. The line begins at the origin and is concave up, with its slope increasing over time.", caption: none) ] A well-thrown ball is caught in a well-padded mitt. If the deceleration of the ball is #math.equation(block: false, alt: "2 . 10 times 10 to the power 4 m/s squared")[$2 "." "10" × "10"^(4) #h(0.25em) attach(" m/s", t: 2)$], and 1.85 ms #math.equation(block: false, alt: "open parenthesis 1 ms equals 10 to the power minus 3 s close parenthesis")[$( "1 ms" = "10"^(− 3) #h(0.25em) " s" )$] elapses from the time the ball first touches the mitt until it stops, what was the initial velocity of the ball? #solutionbox[ 38.9 m/s (about 87 miles per hour) ] A bullet in a gun is accelerated from the firing chamber to the end of the barrel at an average rate of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "6 .20 times 10 to the power 5 m/s squared")[$6 ".20" × "10"^(5) #h(0.25em) attach(" m/s", t: 2)$] for #math.equation(block: false, alt: "8 . 10 times 10 to the power minus 4 s")[$8 "." "10" × "10"^(− 4) #h(0.25em) " s"$]. What is its muzzle velocity (that is, its final velocity)? (a) A light-rail commuter train accelerates at a rate of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "1 . 35 m/s squared")[$1 "." attach("35 m/s", t: 2)$]. How long does it take to reach its top speed of 80.0 km/h, starting from rest? (b) The same train ordinarily decelerates at a rate of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "1 . 65 m/s squared")[$1 "." attach("65 m/s", t: 2)$]. How long does it take to come to a stop from its top speed? (c) In emergencies the train can decelerate more rapidly, coming to rest from 80.0 km/h in 8.30 s. What is its emergency deceleration in #math.equation(block: false, alt: "m/s squared")[$"m/s"^(2)$]? #solutionbox[ (a) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "16 . 5 s")[$"16" "." "5 s"$] (b) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "13 . 5 s")[$"13" "." "5 s"$] (c) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "minus 2 . 68 m/s squared")[$− 2 "." attach("68 m/s", t: 2)$] ] While entering a freeway, a car accelerates from rest at a rate of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "2 . 40 m/s squared")[$2 "." attach("40 m/s", t: 2)$] for 12.0 s. (a) Draw a sketch of the situation. (b) List the knowns in this problem. (c) How far does the car travel in those 12.0 s? To solve this part, first identify the unknown, and then discuss how you chose the appropriate equation to solve for it. After choosing the equation, show your steps in solving for the unknown, check your units, and discuss whether the answer is reasonable. (d) What is the car’s final velocity? Solve for this unknown in the same manner as in part (c), showing all steps explicitly. At the end of a race, a runner decelerates from a velocity of 9.00 m/s at a rate of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "2 . 00 m/s squared")[$2 "." attach("00 m/s", t: 2)$]. (a) How far does she travel in the next 5.00 s? (b) What is her final velocity? (c) Evaluate the result. Does it make sense? #solutionbox[ (a) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "20 . 0 m")[$"20" "." "0 m"$] (b) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "minus 1 . 00 m/s")[$− 1 "." "00 m/s"$] (c) This result does not really make sense. If the runner starts at 9.00 m/s and decelerates at #math.equation(block: false, alt: "2 . 00 m/s squared")[$2 "." attach("00 m/s", t: 2)$], then she will have stopped after 4.50 s. If she continues to decelerate, she will be running backwards. ] Professional Application: Blood is accelerated from rest to 30.0 cm/s in a distance of 1.80 cm by the left ventricle of the heart. (a) Make a sketch of the situation. (b) List the knowns in this problem. (c) How long does the acceleration take? To solve this part, first identify the unknown, and then discuss how you chose the appropriate equation to solve for it. After choosing the equation, show your steps in solving for the unknown, checking your units. (d) Is the answer reasonable when compared with the time for a heartbeat? In a slap shot, a hockey player accelerates the puck from a velocity of 8.00 m/s to 40.0 m/s in the same direction. If this shot takes #math.equation(block: false, alt: "3 . 33 times 10 to the power minus 2 s")[$3 "." "33" × "10"^(− 2) #h(0.25em) " s"$], calculate the distance over which the puck accelerates. #solutionbox[ #math.equation(block: true, alt: "0 . 799 m")[$0 "." "799 m"$] ] A powerful motorcycle can accelerate from rest to 26.8 m/s (100 km/h) in only 3.90 s. (a) What is its average acceleration? (b) How far does it travel in that time? Freight trains can produce only relatively small accelerations and decelerations. (a) What is the final velocity of a freight train that accelerates at a rate of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "0 . 0500 m/s squared")[$0 "." attach("0500 m/s", t: 2)$] for 8.00 min, starting with an initial velocity of 4.00 m/s? (b) If the train can slow down at a rate of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "0 . 550 m/s squared")[$0 "." attach("550 m/s", t: 2)$], how long will it take to come to a stop from this velocity? (c) How far will it travel in each case? #solutionbox[ (a) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "28 . 0 m/s")[$"28" "." "0 m/s"$] (b) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "50 . 9 s")[$"50" "." "9 s"$] (c) 7.68 km to accelerate and 713 m to decelerate ] A fireworks shell is accelerated from rest to a velocity of 65.0 m/s over a distance of 0.250 m. (a) How long did the acceleration last? (b) Calculate the acceleration. A swan on a lake gets airborne by flapping its wings and running on top of the water. (a) If the swan must reach a velocity of 6.00 m/s to take off and it accelerates from rest at an average rate of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "0 . 350 m/s squared")[$0 "." attach("350 m/s", t: 2)$], how far will it travel before becoming airborne? (b) How long does this take? #solutionbox[ (a) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "51 . 4 m")[$51 "." 4 #h(0.25em) "m"$] (b) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "17 . 1 s")[$"17" "." "1 s"$] ] #emph[Professional Application:] A woodpecker’s brain is specially protected from large decelerations by tendon-like attachments inside the skull. While pecking on a tree, the woodpecker’s head comes to a stop from an initial velocity of 0.600 m/s in a distance of only 2.00 mm. (a) Find the acceleration in #math.equation(block: false, alt: "m/s squared")[$"m/s"^(2)$] and in multiples of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "g g equals 9 . 80 m/s squared")[$g #h(0.25em) g = 9 "." "80" #h(0.25em) attach(" m/s", t: 2)$]. (b) Calculate the stopping time. (c) The tendons cradling the brain stretch, making its stopping distance 4.50 mm (greater than the head and, hence, less deceleration of the brain). What is the brain’s deceleration, expressed in multiples of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "g")[$g$]? An unwary football player collides with a padded goalpost while running at a velocity of 7.50 m/s and comes to a full stop after compressing the padding and his body 0.350 m. (a) What is his deceleration? (b) How long does the collision last? #solutionbox[ (a) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "minus 80 . 4 m/s squared")[$− "80" "." 4 #h(0.25em) "m/s"^(2)$] (b) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "9 . 33 times 10 to the power minus 2 s")[$9 "." "33" × "10"^(− 2) #h(0.25em) " s"$] ] In World War II, there were several reported cases of airmen who jumped from their flaming airplanes with no parachute to escape certain death. Some fell about 20,000 feet (6000 m), and some of them survived, with few life-threatening injuries. For these lucky pilots, the tree branches and snow drifts on the ground allowed their deceleration to be relatively small. If we assume that a pilot’s speed upon impact was 123 mph (54 m/s), then what was his deceleration? Assume that the trees and snow stopped him over a distance of 3.0 m. Consider a grey squirrel falling out of a tree to the ground. (a) If we ignore air resistance in this case (only for the sake of this problem), determine a squirrel’s velocity just before hitting the ground, assuming it fell from a height of 3.0 m. (b) If the squirrel stops in a distance of 2.0 cm through bending its limbs, compare its deceleration with that of the airman in the previous problem. #solutionbox[ (a) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "7 . 7 m/s")[$7 "." "7 m/s"$] (b) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "minus 15 times 10 squared m/s squared")[$− "15" × "10"^(2) #h(0.25em) "m/s"^(2)$]. This is about 3 times the deceleration of the pilots, who were falling from thousands of meters high! ] An express train passes through a station. It enters with an initial velocity of 22.0 m/s and decelerates at a rate of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "0 . 150 m/s squared")[$0 "." attach("150 m/s", t: 2)$] as it goes through. The station is 210 m long. (a) How long did the nose of the train stay in the station? (b) How fast is it going when the nose leaves the station? (c) If the train is 130 m long, when does the end of the train leave the station? (d) What is the velocity of the end of the train as it leaves? Dragsters can actually reach a top speed of 145 m/s in only 4.45 s—considerably less time than given in and . (a) Calculate the average acceleration for such a dragster. (b) Find the final velocity of this dragster starting from rest and accelerating at the rate found in (a) for 402 m (a quarter mile) without using any information on time. (c) Why is the final velocity greater than that used to find the average acceleration? #emph[Hint]: Consider whether the assumption of constant acceleration is valid for a dragster. If not, discuss whether the acceleration would be greater at the beginning or end of the run and what effect that would have on the final velocity. #solutionbox[ (a) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "32 . 6 m/s squared")[$"32" "." attach("6 m/s", t: 2)$] (b) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "162 m/s")[$"162 m/s"$] (c) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v greater than v sub max")[$v > v_("max")$], because the assumption of constant acceleration is not valid for a dragster. A dragster changes gears, and would have a greater acceleration in first gear than second gear than third gear, etc. The acceleration would be greatest at the beginning, so it would not be accelerating at #math.equation(block: false, alt: "32 . 6 m/s squared")[$"32" "." attach("6 m/s", t: 2)$] during the last few meters, but substantially less, and the final velocity would be less than 162 m/s. ] A bicycle racer sprints at the end of a race to clinch a victory. The racer has an initial velocity of 11.5 m/s and accelerates at the rate of #math.equation(block: false, alt: "0 . 500 m/s squared")[$0 "." attach("500 m/s", t: 2)$] for 7.00 s. (a) What is his final velocity? (b) The racer continues at this velocity to the finish line. If he was 300 m from the finish line when he started to accelerate, how much time did he save? (c) One other racer was 5.00 m ahead when the winner started to accelerate, but he was unable to accelerate, and traveled at 11.8 m/s until the finish line. How far ahead of him (in meters and in seconds) did the winner finish? In 1967, New Zealander Burt Munro set the world record for an Indian motorcycle, on the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, with a maximum speed of 183.58 mi/h. The one-way course was 5.00 mi long. Acceleration rates are often described by the time it takes to reach 60.0 mi/h from rest. If this time was 4.00 s, and Burt accelerated at this rate until he reached his maximum speed, how long did it take Burt to complete the course? #solutionbox[ 104 s ] (a) A world record was set for the men’s 100-m dash in the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing by Usain Bolt of Jamaica. Bolt “coasted” across the finish line with a time of 9.69 s. If we assume that Bolt accelerated for 3.00 s to reach his maximum speed, and maintained that speed for the rest of the race, calculate his maximum speed and his acceleration. (b) During the same Olympics, Bolt also set the world record in the 200-m dash with a time of 19.30 s. Using the same assumptions as for the 100-m dash, what was his maximum speed for this race? #solutionbox[ (a) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v equals 12 . 2 m/s")[$v = "12" "." "2 m/s"$]; #math.equation(block: false, alt: "a equals 4 . 07 m/s squared")[$a = 4 "." attach("07 m/s", t: 2)$] (b) #math.equation(block: false, alt: "v equals 11 . 2 m/s")[$v = "11" "." "2 m/s"$] ]